Digestion of carbohydrate. Carbohydrate is the most general food that we consume. Please explain the fate of digestion of carbohydrates (starch, sucrose, lactose, cellulose) from mouth into blood stream and liver. Use the schematic diagram and explain clearly:
- process
- where it take place
- enzyme which involve in each process
Glycolysis. Glycolysis is a process that conversion of a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. What is the overall, balanced chemical equation of glycolysis? Where is this process take place? How many major stage of glycolysis? And write consecutive equation on these stages!
What is the function of each stage?
Case:
A compound is an inhibitor of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. If this compound were added into liver cells where D-glucose was only substrate, what is the effect of the additional of this compound for the step of glycolisys?
If the substance were L-lactate, what is the effect of the additional of this compound for the step of glycolisys?
Cory cycle. To exercise, the skeletal muscles obtain ATP from glycolysis. From where do the skeletal muscles obtain their carbohydrate for glycolysis? What is the fate of this process base of Cory cycle?
Next step after glycolysis. There are three important pathway, which can be passed by pyruvat after glycolysis, depend on oxygen presence. Describe of these three pathways!
Please explain on the basis of next pathway after glycolysis. In skeleton muscles which work actively and in anaerobic condition, discuss about:
- What is the fate of glucose?
- What is the product of this pathway?
- Write the overall of equation and balance chemical equation of this path!
Alcoholic Fermentation. Suppose that you have isolated a facultative microorganism that you are growing anaerobically in medium containing a carbohydrate. Explain, on basis of your knowledge of metabolism, why each of following statements is false.
- The culture must be growing on glucose because bacteria ferment a few other compounds
- The product of the fermentation must be more highly oxidized than substrate, otherwise no energy is conserved
- The culture can’t be producing any CO2.
Poison of glycolytic pathway. There are several best known of poisons of glycolytic pathway. Describe these poisons including the reaction of inhibition!
The structure and chemical properties of Arsenate is looks like phosphate (Pi), but arsenate is not stable than phosphate. What is the influence of arsenate when arsenate changes phosphate in overall reaction that is catalyzed by glyceraldehydes-3-phosphatase dehydrogenase?
What is the consequence of arsenate for organism, when it replaces Phosphate? Why?
Regulation of glycolytic pathway. A regulatory enzyme is defined as an enzyme that is subject to control by either, allosteric effectors or covalent modulation. There are commonly regulatory enzymes of glycolytic pathway. Describe them!
D-galactose metabolism. D-galactose is converted to D-glucose in liver by metabolic process. Please explain metabolism of D-galactose! Related to it pathway, what do you know about galactosemia? Please explain which enzyme cannot involve!
Does galactosemia can occur to adult? Why?
What are the biochemical effects of galactosemia? Is there alternate source of tissue galactose for patients on a galactose-free diet? Would a mother who is homozygous galactosemic be able to produce lactose in her milk?
Hormon on glycolysis. Hormones does not exert any direct control on the rate of glycolysis, but three hormones have direct influence. These are insulin, glucagons, and epinephrine. What is the function of each hormone? Where are insulin, glucagons produce, and what controls their secretion into blood?
Diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease characterized by derangement in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. There are two types of it, type I and type II. When does the type I happen? When does the type II happen? What is the function of insulin related to this disease? Please explain about it!
There are 3 factors that make insulin decrease in our body. Please explain it!
Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle. The Citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) is part of the process called respiration, does oxygen directly involve in the reaction of this cycle? TCA cycle use eight enzymes to catabolize acetyl Co-A. Please write:
- The enzyme that involve
- The cyclic acid cycle!
Why the citric acid cycle so named? Where does TCA cycle occur? How much energy (in ATP) does the cycle release?
Glycogenesis (synthesis of glycogen) and Glycogenolysis (lysis of Glycogen). Glycogen is a polimer of glucose. Glycogen is an energy that can be rapidly broken down ultimately to glucose 6-phosphate, which then enters to glycolytic pathway. Where is the glycogen synthesized? Where is the glycogen stored? Please tell us the pathway of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis!
Oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidative phosphorylation is the culmination of energy yielding
metabolism in aerobic organisms. Where this process take place? Please note the anatomy of mitochondrion, and the contains of each component!
Electron transfer translocates protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the external medium, establishing a pH gradient across the inner membrane (outside more acidic than inside). The tendency of protons to diffuse back into the matrix is the driving force for ATP synthesis by ATP synthase. During oxidative phosphorylation by a suspension of mitochondria in a medium of pH 7.4, the pH of the matrix has been measured as 7.7.
a) Calculate [H+] in the external medium and in the matrix under these conditions.
b) What is the outside-to-inside ratio of [H+]? Comment on the energy inherent in this concentration difference.
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